Gulliver's Travels Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Gulliver's Travels - Essay Example Laputa is a fictional island made out of a kind of marble, ‘adamantine’ - adamant means stubborn, an indication of the king (Your Dictionary 2009) - that hovers above a bigger island called Balnibarbi. Gulliver spends some time there, but is dismayed by the blinkered views of the inhabitants, who are good with technology, astronomy, mathematics and music, but have not developed practical skills and are not sociable. His time there is spent chatting with servants and women, who he considers less important. He lumps women of all times and places together as being ‘not limited by any climate or nation, and ... are much more uniform, and can be easily imagined.’ (Swift 2003) But they are ‘less valid’ than the ones who matter: the scientists and thinking men, who have no time for him. Thinking them rude, he decides to leave. He is allowed to go with a gift of ‘about two hundred pounds English’ a sum which indicates not only the time Swif t writes in, but also his inability to break out of the English mold: perhaps because he thinks of his audience, or perhaps because he is caught within that scope. All the fancy imaginings he uses are a conscious departure from the customs, politics, costumes and language he knew. Descending to the lower static island, Gulliver is appalled by the lack of development he witnesses during a tour of the capital, Lagado. Compared to the place he has just come from, it is backward, unkempt, disorganized and in disrepair: a real Dystopia, even though the Laputians had strange ways of doing things. In a place about ‘half the bigness of London’, the people below appear so strange, and the soil so uncultivated, that he asks questions of his guide, lord Munodi. It turns out the reasons behind the sorry state of Lagado is that laws were put in place to ensure everything was done the wrong way around, by the divergent government. Munodi takes Gulliver to his own estate, which in comparison, is extremely well run. ‘...

Attracting and Retaining Talented Personnel Assignment

Attracting and Retaining Talented Personnel - Assignment Example ys in which restructuring human resource induce positive effects on an organization is through aligning the organization’s structure and its resources towards its needs, a factor that facilitates achievement of objectives. Restructuring may also help an organization to eliminate its redundant section of human resource and therefore reduce unnecessary expenses. It however has adverse effects on employees who may be separated from their developed work partners or may be forced to perform tasks that they do not like or they are not perfect in. This may demoralizes employees and reduce productivity levels. It is also important that companies be open to having a diversified workforce because this attracts diversified skills and potentials and therefore promotes creativity and innovation in organizations. A diversified workforce also identifies with many societies and therefore promotes an organization’s image within those societies whose members are part of the organizationà ¢â‚¬â„¢s human resource (Anthony, Kacmar and Perrewe, 2010). Establishing a marketing team in an expanding organization is an example of restructuring human resource because it involves a change in structure. Such a development is likely to increase an organization’s sales level my exploring and capturing new markets. Recruitment of sales personnel from the target population segments is further likely to enhance success in sales as the locals establish a stronger link between the organization and the target population than strangers to the societies

Harmony in Color Essay Example for Free

Harmony in Color Essay Colors seen together to produce a pleasing affective response are said to be in harmony (Burchett 28). Burchett spearheaded an analysis of color theory in order to clarify and define the mystery of color and what draws man to colorful paintings, like a butterfly to a multicolored flower.   The systems of color that need to be rediscovered are found through several color systems, formulas, and principles forwarded by expert scientists who have probed into man’s tendency to be touched by color and his appreciation for it. Harmony is crucial in every sphere in this case art and color interpretation. Color harmony is important to industry, art, fashion, natural science, animation, psychology etc. where man and animals project certain reactions toward color. Researchers have come with many propositions to find out what exactly appeals to the mind, making it receptive to colors that are in sync. Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder. Color interpretation is often individualistic and also conforms according to culture. First of all the eyes construct color in light. The spectral balance explains this peculiarity. The lens refracts rays and focuses them on the retina which predicts and enhances the optic image. Electromagnetic waves help to relay different shades, hues, and patterns of color. It is the unfortunate lot of a few to be color blind. The determination of culture bears a heavy weight in the color harmony since each culture has a different set of values that govern beauty, synchronization, sentiment, and symbolism. â€Å"Different colors differ in the quality and intensity of their affective tone †¦ the differences become even more pronounced when people from different cultures are considered† (Shachtel 168). Therefore colors project various feelings often standing in association with an already familiar element of nature. The modern guide to shades is the color wheel which generates a kaleidoscope of color which gives the color range of color where the tints move from black, dark color, lighter color, to white; hence the segments of color provide primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of color. Nonetheless â€Å"the major shortcoming has been the failure to deal with the three basic perceptual dimensions to color: hue, brightness, and saturation† (Wright 232). These three subdivisions of color make chromatic harmony what it is. Like the refracted rays of light through a prism, looking at light and color unearths several dimensions. Color harmony is not isolated since it can only be appreciated as far as it evokes and transmits certain feelings (called the affective response). For example, warmth and passion are represented by red, coldness equates to blue-grey and bliss is chromatically evinced as a rosy pink etc. Other instances abound from which the artist can draw such as the earthy brown, the green vegetable, the sky-blue, the grey clouds, black night, yellow sun and the list continues. The darkness of the night or the dullness of an overcast sky transfer morbid, melancholy sentiments while the light of day conveys buoyancy, cheerfulness, and optimism. These affective connections define the chroma in which â€Å"color may be considered to be the most universal notion, permitting to assume the unity of both a man and an environment† (Serov). Consequently man’s relation with his environment is conditioned by color which provokes an emotive response from him when observing color or nature. According to Burchett, the eight attributes of color are order, configuration, area, association, similarity, attitude, and tone (Burchett 20). The order of color is crucial to the uniformity, synthesis, juxtaposition, and harmony of color. Also in the naming of colors, blue-green as opposed to green-blue makes a marked difference with respect to color codification. The Munsell Color Order system dictates that the hue, value, and chroma have to be diagrammed in tandem with specific shapes (e.g. circle, square) which ushers in a mathematical aspect of color. This rigidified structure places colors on an equal distance from one another, using primary colors such as yellow, purple, blue, red, and green. A colored tone signifies the depth of the color (which determines whether it is a lighter or darker variation of the same color). There are an infinite range of tone values. One expert on color, Henri Matisse says of tone: â€Å"The relationship of all the tones the result must be a living harmony of all the tones, a harmony not unlike that of a musical composition† (Chipp 134). The attitude of a color has to do with personality and what message the color gives or invokes, namely the character distinctions in a loud color versus a faded color. The Coloroid and the Munsell Color systems attempt at harmonizing color by chromatic spectrum, through a carefully structured, graduated color conversions. The Coloroid Color system, masterminded by Professor Antal Nemcsics, provides a structure whereby people can easily identify harmonious color, setting up a chromatic balance and the color ranks. In the Coloroid system, the most important features are the color hue, brightness, and saturation. One of the main principles of the Coloroid system which promotes melodious color is its â€Å"aesthetically uniform color-space† (Neuman). Here, the observer sees the progressive change from one color into another on the spectrum. â€Å"The fluctuations range from minute gradients fragile enough to be quenched by artificial illumination to abrupt, linear, and sometimes almost crystalline transitions both of hue, and up to a point of value† (Fried). The synchronized transitioning from one hue and another, one tone to another, is the main objective. Just as scales are represented in music in movement from one octave to the next, color must stick to this gradual succession. The Munsell color system seeks to strikes equilibrium among colors through a lightness-contrast mathematical equation. In this harmony formula, the variables are the Euclidean distances or the color intervals where â€Å"the degree of harmony is a cubic function of the color interval† (Chuang). Another element of color harmony is the hue effect. The color harmonies respond in accordance with the lightness/ brightness, saturation contrasts. As a result, we have a chromatic concord through these color and light values. The hue effect or the Abney effect essentially explains the color’s alteration under white light. The harmonic formula to the hue effect is as follows: H’=-0.23 – 0.35 sin (h s (ab) + 0.83) – 0.18sin (2h s(ab + 1.55) Chromatic Difference is a product of the equal-chroma and equal-hue effects principles. Through this equation, the color harmony score is calculated by computing the differences between hue and chroma where the smaller the difference between the two reveals the level of chromatic harmony.The Chromatic Difference Equation is as follows: H  Ã‚  Ã‚   =1.3 0.07 C 0.0005(C) Meta†harmony value is acquired by the defined hue effect function at the meta-harmony value. The Meta-harmony equation is as follows: ΔM = (ΔLM 2 + ΔTM2)1/2 Through this equation, one finds ΔM the meta†harmony value is defined by the Euclidean distance on the transformed hue planes. The final harmony value is defined by an H(Δ) function at the ΔM meta†harmony value. Results have been proven by experimental  observations, too. In conclusion, the harmony of color is a concept which embraces the hue, saturation, and brightness of color. In addition, the unity of color is promoted by the smooth transition to the next just like the scales in a musical manuscript. The coloroid and the munsell systems help incorporate harmonious chromatic values into the kaleidoscopic spectrum of color. All of these characteristics contribute in making the life experience more enjoyable where the senses are very much attuned to engage with the world. The colorful, colored world lies open for scrutiny where we as humans of every hue are touched not only through vision, but also through the very innate color coded system wiring which connects color to feelings and heart.

Science Empiricism Rationalism

Science Empiricism Rationalism The term social science is a misnomer which masks the necessarily different epistemic methods and ontological realities consistent with natural and social realms respectively. Critically appraise this claim In this essay I intend to dispute the notion that the term social science is a misnomer. Firstly, I will define social science, and then focus on the differences between rationalism and empiricism without whose existence there would be no epistemology. Empiricism will receive more attention due to the fact that that it has become the dominant epistemic approach, systematically and rigorously expressed through its offspring, ie ,materialism, sensism, positivism and naturalism. Second, I intend to allow ontological realities to manifest themselves through Kants articulation as both an empiricist and a rationalist. This will dispel uninteresting dichotomies and allow one to stand back, as it were, from ones own analysis of the topic. EPISTEMIC APPROACHES WITHIN THE NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES:Rationalism and Empiricism. According to Marshall social science is a general label applied to the study of society and human relationships†¦The designation of an area of study as a social science usually carries the implication that it is comparable in many ways to a natural science (1994 :493). The implication here is that natural and social reality can be studied in the same way because both realities consist of relationships between facts, eg, cause and effect. Note should be taken of the fact that rationalists and empiricists, despite their different approaches in their quest for knowledge, have both contributed immensely to the birth of different academic disciplines to which even modern day intellectuals subscribe. More interesting is that each of the two epistemic approaches claims their method of enquiry gives birth to valid information or certainty. According to Hamlyn rationalism ,whose founder is Descartes is an epistemological doctrine that puts weight on reason or understanding, as distinct from the senses or sense perception(1987:134).On the other hand empiricists believe the only source of knowledge is experience. John Locke held the view that the scope of our knowledge is limited to, and by, our experience(Stumpf,1983:254). RATIONALISM (i)Descartes: This philosophical movement was initiated by Descartes and carried on with varying degrees of thoroughness by Spinoza and Leibniz†¦(Hamlyn, 1987:134). A rationalist relies on logic and principles of reasonableness in order to arrive at a conclusion. One would clarify this by giving an example popularized by Rene Descartes that it is only in relation to thinking that I am certain that I exist(Hamlyn,1987:138).Descartes continues to maintain that existence must be a property of a being who is conceived of as possessing all attributes in perfection (Hamlyn,1987:141).Kant opposed this view citing experience was not a property of a thing in the way that Descartes supposes. Leibniz went further by maintaining that existence depends on whether that conception is coherent or involves a contradiction(Hamlyn,1987:140).One can partly agree with Descartes view that existence is a property of a being, but to say that its creator is perfect is a product of human imagination. Perfection, by th e way, remains an imaginary construct when taking into account the context in which Descartes states his case. For example, in order for one to be declared perfect, one has to adhere to the standard guidelines which should be followed in order to create a particular thing or use a previous model as a yardstick or even improve on it. It is ones belief that rationalism has not been a dominant epistemic approach. Kant and Locke, for example, have imbibed both epistemic approaches. To take it further most modern day individuals employ both approaches in their daily activities. (ii)Spinoza There was also another rationalist called Spinoza in whose views rationalism received its most systematic and rigorous expression. His main work was called ethics. According to Stumpf ethics is concerned with actions that can be labeled right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or undesirable, worthy or unworthy. Also, ethics, is concerned with ones personal responsibility, duty, or obligation for his behaviour(1983:1)His concern with ethics should be understood in its proper context in that both the means and goals of social science investigation are intrinsically bound up with ethical considerations, especially when conducting research involving human subjects, eg., protection of privacy through informed consent. According to Hamlyn Spinoza provides †¦a striking contrast with Descartes ,who had little concern with things ethical(1987:149).Spinoza felt that there are three kinds of knowledge, ie, knowledge of vague experience- when we generalize from casual and confused experience. The second kind is identified with reason, and the third one is intuition(Hamlyn,1987:152).The second and third kinds of knowledge reflect a rationalist view in that they are necessarily true, and reason regards things as necessary (iii)Leibniz According to Stumpf Leibniz was dissatisfied with the way Descartes and Spinoza had described the nature of substance because he felt they had distorted our understanding of human nature(1983:246).Spinoza defines substance as that which is in itself: I mean that the conception of which does not depend on the conception of another thing from which it must be formed(Stumpf,1983:241).Leibniz on the other hand takes it that substance as a basic form of existence must be absolutely simple ,for if it were complex it would be secondary to whatever it is composed of (Hamlyn,1987:159).This means that Leibniz and Spinoza somehow agree that substance should not depend on anything other that itself to exist. But one would argue that their view has defied logic in that every entity or substance is an offspring or a product of a particular thing. It is interesting that Leibniz, despite being a rationalist, sought empirical evidence to defend his principle that no two substances can differ solo numero (Hamlyn, 1987:162-163). He pointed to considerations that tree leaves are all different, and subscribed to similar evidence which was assessed through the newly invented microscope. EMPIRICISM According to Comte, empiricism is an epistemological doctrine that all knowledge proper must be subject to canons of verification in terms of experience(Hamlyn,1987:275). Marshall (1994:149) defines empiricism as a term often used, loosely, to describe an orientation to research which emphasizes the collection of facts and observations, at the expense of conceptual reflection and theoretical enquiry. This implies that knowledge must undergo rigorous interrogation so as to be sure that it has not defied science. Empiricism presents itself in four ways: Materialism, sensism, positivism, and naturalism. (i)Materialism: According to Marshall materialism means a range of metaphysical positions (philosophical views about the fundamental nature of reality)†¦Whereas in classical times matter had been opposed to form, the dominant early modern contrast was between matter and spirit or mind(1994:315).Thinking of societies in terms of physical or material properties may be called materialism. We must also explain nature in terms of materialism. (ii)Sensism According to Knight all materialists are of course sensists†¦Locke as one the empiricists, derives all simple ideas from external experience (sensations), all compound ideas modes, substances) from internal experience (reflection) (1999:1-see bibl.12 ).One can argue that sensism is problematic in that perceptions and judgements may differ with different individuals, leading to incessant speculation. (iii)Positivism The acknowledged founder of positivism was the French philosopher and social scientist Auguste Comte. He also came up with the invention of the term Sociology.In the context of positivism, positive facts are things that can be observed or measured. Positivists argue that only that which can be observed and measured can be studied†¦(Le Roux et al,1986:174).This means that positivists regard grounding as very important in positive facts. An example would be Durkheims statement that there is a relationship between social integration and suicide(Haralambos,1980:496).This is real in that integration of people from various backgrounds, with different cultures can cause tension , alienation and personality disorganization According to Keat and Urry several conventionalist philosophers of science have been influenced by the later writings of Wittgenstein, and realist philosophy of science has partly been developed from the standpoint of scientific realism, a position which is opposed both to logical positivism and also to the movement of analytical philosophy inspired by Wittgenstein, Ryle and Austin(1980:6).It must be understood that although the realist and the positivist share amongst others a conception of science as an empirically-based, rational and objective enterprise, there is an important difference between explanation and prediction. Keat and Urry say that, for the realist, a scientific theory is a description of structures and mechanisms which causally generate the observable phenomena, a description which enables us to explain them(1980:5) It is worth mentioning how these varying accounts of positivism and realism expose knowledge as an elusive concept. After ones acceptance of positivism as irrefutable conception of the natural science, realism demands that we discover the necessary connections between phenomena, by deconstructing the observable phenomena. According to Keat and Urry†¦we must get beyond the mere appearances of things, to their natures and essences(1980:5).In a nutshell one can say that we have to peel away layers of constructed meaning to reveal the underlying layers of meaning that were suppressed or assumed in order for the phenomenon to take its actual form. Focus will be on three empiricists: (i)John Locke:(1632-1704) According to Hamlyn, the purpose of Locke is to enquire into the original, certainty, and extent of human knowledge, together with the grounds and degrees of belief, opinion and assent, without meddling with the physical consideration of the mind(1987:168-169).This implies that he is concerned with the limits of human understanding and one is bound to believe that Locke does not want any kind of social construct to be attached to this process, so as to give it independence. According to Kenny, Locke is forever talking about ideas(1994:129).This is evident in his first book entitled Of Innate Notions which contains a sharp attack on the notion of innate ideas. Hamlyn says Locke is concerned with two things: (i)whether there is innate knowledge of principles; and (ii)whether what he sometimes calls the materials of that knowledge; the ideas on which the knowledge is based, are innate. That distinction between knowledge and ideas affects the whole Essay(1987:169).One might assume that Lockes preoccupation or obsession with ideas was prompted by his intellectual rival, Descartes, who according to Kenny wrote that an infant in its mothers womb has in itself the ideas of God, itself, and all truths which are said to be self-evident, it has these ideas no less than adults have when they are not paying attention to them, and it does not acquire them afterwards when it grows up(1994:128). One can argue that innate ideas do exist, and they mature with time because exposure to externalities. The outside world will decide on their validity. Marshall says that Peter Berger and Thomas Luckman, in The Social Construction Of Reality(1966), view social processes as a dialectic of externalization and internalization(1994:167).According to Stumpf, Lockess fellow empiricists Bacon and Hobbes had urged that knowledge should be built upon observation (1983:254).This means that knowledge should be a product of scientific enquiry. Locke discarded the notion that we all came here with a standard stock of ideas built into the mind(Stumpf,1983:257).He said the origin of his ideas is experience, and experience takes two forms, sensation and reflection. What he elucidated was that we cannot have the experience of reflection (mind taking note of its operations) until we have had the experience of the sensation (ideas). (ii)George Berkeley: (1685-1752) Berkeley was influenced by Locke although according to Kenny, his importance in philosophy is largely as a critic of Locke(1994:140).His principal criticisms focus on three heads: the notion of abstract general ideas, the distinction between primary and secondary qualities, and the concept of material substance(1994:140).Because of Berkeleys criticism, Lockes empiricism is reduced into a unique form of idealism. 1.ABSTRACT IDEAS Lockes view that words represent ideas and general words correspond to abstract general ideas has come under attack from Berkeley. Locke says in his Essay, that according to the representational theory, a general idea is a particular idea which has been made general by being made for all of a kind, in the way in which a geometry teacher draws a particular triangle to represent all triangles(Kenny,1994:140).There is also what Kenny calls the eliminative theory, according to whom the general idea is a particular idea which contains only what is common to all particulars of the same kind. Berkeley is interested in how Locke combines features of the two theories. According to Kenny, Berkeley says it takes pains and skill to form the general idea of a triangle-for it must be neither oblique nor rectangle, neither equilateral, equicrural nor scalenon, but all and none of these at once(1994:140).One can say that eliminative theory and representational theory are two sides of the same coin in that in eliminative theory, the idea becomes a general idea when the unwanted group is eliminated. With regard to the representational theory, an idea becomes a general idea when all subscribe to it. Kenny accuses both Locke and Berkeley of using the word idea to mean to mean indifferently a sense-experience, an image, a secondary quality, or a concept(1994:140). IDEAS AND QUALITIES We must move from the premise that one of Berkeleys views is that distance is not something immediately perceived but something constructed from certain orderly relations of the ideas of different senses in the mind. According to Shand, the equating of ideas with sensible things, which thereby makes sensible things mind-dependent, eliminates each of the following forms of skepticism produced by materialism and Cartesianism(1993:132): (a)The existence of sensible things. The problem is solved because the skeptic cannot drive a wedge between ideas if the objects of sense are ideas. (b)The nature of sensible things. Science aspires only to map the regular correlations between ideas ,that is between phenomena. (c)The existence and nature of God. The problem is eliminated by making God indispensable. Gods existence is seen as the real cause of those ideas that are not caused by our imaginations and as the sustainer of those ideas we do not actually perceive, the supposition that God does not exist is refuted by almost every experience we have. (d)How matter and spirit can interact. This problem is eliminated by denying the existence of material substance; then the problem of interaction between spirit and matter simply does not arise(1993:132-133) The implication here is that Berkeley believes that anything that can be sensed actually exists. THE CONCEPT OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCE (i) One should also note that Berkeley is an opponent of materialism. According to Shand, Berkeley it is impossible for matter to have only primary qualities such as extension, solidity, movement. He believes that we cannot conceive of a shape which is no colour, and therefore the conception of matter required for materialism is impossible. He instead suggests that all matter should have all secondary qualities, from which primary qualities cannot be separated (1993:133).One can assume that he is referring to qualities such as weight, sound, taste and identity. To say that every matter must be able to move is not accurately correct in that not all matter is a living organism; (ii) Berkeley says that what exists has got to be a product of something. In his own words he argues that it is a logical contradiction to talk of conceiving of a thing which exists unconceived (Shand,1993:133).But Shand sees this as a fallacious argument in that it is not possible for A to be conceived of, and at the same time both exist and be a thing unconceived, but that does not mean at some other time A could not exist as an unconceived-of A, thus there is nothing contradictory in A existing unthought about (1993;133).This means that A does not necessarily have to be thought about in order to exist. (iii) Berkeley argues that if secondary qualities (colour, taste, heat, sound, etc.) are ideas in the mind, as Locke does, then the same applies to primary qualities (shape, size, motion, solidity),for these two vary with the observer (Shand, 1993:133).Colour is arguably not an idea in the mind because one can see it. It is not clear whether, according to Berkeley, secondary qualities also include things that one cannot touch. (iv) This argument pertains to pain and heat. Berkeley holds the view that when we are close to the, heat is felt as pain in the mind, and when we are a distance away the heat is merely felt as warmth (Shand,1993:133-134).The argument here is that since the pain is not in the fire, then it must be in the mind. (v) Berkeley compares the notion of matter with what Locke has to say about substance in general. Locke suggests that substance is characterized by being the support of all qualities, the qualities cannot subsist alone. But Berkeley argues that an attempt to give substance a positive characterization is impossible, since to do so would attribute qualities to it. This would render substance a qualityless something. Although Berkeley sees this as a perfectly flawless argument, he believes that no materialist would suggest that matter is qualityless (Kenny,1994:134).This would mean that substance and qualities cannot exist in the absence of the other. DAVID HUME (1711-1776) He is said to have carried empiricism to its fullest expression. He believed the scientific method could lead us to a clear understanding of human nature and in particular the workings of the human mind(Stumpf, 1983:270-271).Some commentators find it difficult the precise position of Hume. The difference with Hume was that if we used the scientific method to determine truth, we must according to Stumpf, accept the limits of knowledge(1983:272).Probably he was expressing doubt about the efficacy of scientific enquiry in clarifying pertinent issues. According to Hamlyn, the doctrine that every simple idea is derived from simple impression is the center-point of Humes empiricism, and that it is crucial for his philosophy(1987:190).Both Hume and Locke opine that impressions are of sensation but disagree on reflection because Humes account seems different from Lockes. He (Hume) holds the view that impressions are distinguishable from ideas by their superior force and vivacity(Hamlyn,1987:190).This might be the case because of the complexity of impressions. Hamlyn sees this as a very important principle, and one which Hume inherited from Berkeley which is :one cannot distinguish between impressions and ideas by reference to anything outside them, only by internal properties such as their liveliness(1987:190).One can simplify this by making reference to pain. The only person who feels the pain is the one who is hurt and nobody else. One cannot for example, merely look at the husband and confirm that the wife is feeling pain , nor can the husband know how much pain is felt by the wife. NATURALISM According to Knight, naturalism consists essentially in looking upon nature as the one original and fundamental source of all that exists, and in attempting to explain everything in terms of nature(1999:1). What this means is that all events find their satisfactory experience within nature itself. There are two traditions that claim to understand the problem of naturalism. These are the naturalist and anti-naturalist traditions. The former claims that the sciences are (actually or ideally) unified with positivist principles. For the latter the subject matter of the social sciences consists essentially of meaningful objects, and their aim is the elucidation of the meaning of these objects(Bhaskar, 1979:241). A naturalist traditions association with positivist principles means that it relies on measurement and observation in order to study a phenomenon. The anti-naturalist tradition, one would argue, looks beyond observable phenomena by enquiring as to what the object is made of. Bhaskar argues that the two disputants ironically share a common error in accepting an essentially positivist account of natural science, or at least an empiricist ontology. One would argue that there is nothing wrong in adopting a positivist approach when interrogating natural science, because essentially positivism deals with things that can be observed and measured. It must be understood that there is a fundamental contrast between social and natural science. With regard to the latter the discovery of intelligible connections in its subject matter is not equally the goal of natural scientific explanation(Bhaskar,1979:2). Instead this applies to social science. It is argued that the recent developments in the philosophy of science permit a reconsideration of the problem of naturalism(Bhaskar, 1979:3). These could be the varying views brought about by the naturalists and anti-naturalists. For example, Winchs anti-naturalism depends on empiricist theories of existence and causality. Now Bhaskar argues that if science employs a causal criterion for ascribing reality and causal laws are tendencies, his contrast collapses(1979:3). This means that if causal laws apply to science, then it applies top both natural and social science, and more important is it has become a tendency; Bhaskar defines naturalism as the thesis that there is (or can be) an essential unity of method between the natural and social services. It has two species: reductionism which asserts that there is an actual identity of subject matter as well, and scientism, which denies that there are any significant differences in the methods appropriate to studying social and natural objects, whether or not they are actually (as in reductionism) identified (1979:3).What is noteworthy is that these factions of naturalism talk in universals almost to a point of denying an opposite view the right to existence. In a nutshell, science is just whatever scientists do, and it is expected of them to differ in the way they solicit knowledge. ONTOLOGICAL REALITIES Marshall defines ontology as anyway of understanding the world, or some part of it, must make assumptions(which may be implicit or explicit) about what kinds of things do or can exist in that domain, and what might be their conditions of existence, relations of dependency, and so on(1994:367).He goes on to say the core of the philosophical project of metaphysics is to provide an ontology of the world as a whole. One will note that by focusing on the world as a whole, there will be a systematic arrangement of the relations between the social and natural sciences. Focus will be on Kant because he is both an empiricist and rationalist. KANT We must move from the premise that Kant is both an empiricist and a rationalist, in that he tried to reconcile rationalism empiricism by arguing that while knowledge itself comes from experience, the mind uses reason to structure knowledge(Prof. McLeary, see bibliography-No.11).Kant is described as a person who was more interested in science than philosophy, with the aim of making it truly scientific(Kenny, 1994:167).This shows that he really is both an empiricist and a rationalist in that he felt philosophy should also undergo the same rigorous interrogation as other academic disciplines, including the natural sciences. According to Kenny the distinction between a priori and a posteriori is central to Kants undertaking. A priori knowledge which is independent of all experience†¦In addition to a priori knowledge there is also empirical knowledge, knowledge derived from experience which Kant calls knowledge a posteriori'(1994:167).With regard to a priori knowledge, one can cite space as an example because yet one knows it exists. A posteriori refers to things we have seen, or touched or even felt. According to Shand, knowledge for Kant, as for Leibniz, had to be necessary and universally valid(1993:161).We are tempted to believe that if information was not universally accepted as fact, then it would not be regarded as knowledge. Kenny says Kant regarded all of mathematics as belonging to this realm: arithmetic and geometry were synthetic, since they extended our knowledge widely beyond pure logic, and yet they were a priori, deriving not from experience but from intuition(1994:168).This is an interesting philosophical statement in that two contradictory phenomena are combined to produce something qualitatively new, independent of experience, an understanding of which does not require one to be taught or even think hard.coeb ebr seebebw oreb ebk ineb foeb eb! Kant says there are two pure forms of sensible intuition, serving as principles of a priori knowledge, namely space and time(1994:169).It must be noted that both time and space can never be touched. After having asked himself what time and space were, he then came up with the answers. He made a distinction between a metaphysical exposition of an a priori concept and a transcendental exposition. Marshall defines metaphysics as a philosophical project which devises theory of the nature or structure of reality, or of the whole world. Transcendentalism is the belief that God stands outside and independent of the universe of which he is a creator(1994:325538). Kant says that the metaphysical exposition of space and time tells us that space and time are presupposed by, not derived from, experience; that we can imagine space and time without objects, but not objects without space and time, and that there is a single space and a single time, infinite in each case(Kenny, 1994:169).We are bound to believe that objects would not exist if space was non-existent, and that they have time within which they can exist. The transcendental exposition of the concepts of space and time shows how we can know truths about space and time which are not analytic and yet are a priori(Kenny, 1994:169). The implication here is that we do not necessarily have to experience a thing in order to know that it exists. CONCLUSION It has become apparent that social enquirers happen to tamper with the supposed objective enquiry by allowing their personal values to feed into their conclusions. Accepting that matters of value are matters of fact, their values must be correct. The mushrooming of social study over the last 100 or 150 years was partly inspired by the notion that social study was a matter of searching for general laws(Pratt, 1978:72).General laws, one would argue, are rather required by the natural sciences. With regard to social science, a particular kind of human behaviour cannot always be attributed to a particular kind of a problem. Suicide, for example, is not seen by every person as a solution to marital problems. Also, capital punishment does not necessarily deter potential murderers. Within natural science it is usually possible to use rigorous investigative techniques by bringing the objects under study into the laboratory. It is not as easy with humans, because one has to get approval from eg, the individuals themselves or the ethics committee. In a nutshell, we cannot employ the methods of the natural sciences in understanding the social world. This is evident in Winchs statement that †¦whereas the scientist investigates the nature, causes and effects of particular real things and processes, the philosopher is concerned with the nature of reality as such and in general(Hindess,1977:3).The two methods are inextricably intertwined despite their different approaches in their quest for valid knowledge and ability to predict. To declare social science a misnomer is arguably inaccurate in that both epistemic and ontological enquiries are social products employed in pursuit of knowledge for the benefit of society. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bhaskar, R. 1979. The Possibility of Naturalism:A Philosophical Critique of the Contemporary Human Sciences. Atlantic Highlands, N.J. :Humanities Press. 2. Hamlyn, D.W. 1987. A History of Western Philosophy. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 3. Haralambos, M Holborn, M.1980. Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London. University Tutorial Press. 4. Harris, E.E. 1969. Fundamentals of Philosophy. George Allen Unwin Ltd. Great Britain. 5. Hindess, B.1977. Philosophy and Methodology in the Social Sciences. Sussex : The Harvester Press. 6. Keat, R Urry, J.1980.Social Theory as Science. Boston :Routledge Kegan Paul. 7. Kenny, A.1994. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Western Philosophy. Great Britain :Oxford University Press. 8. Le Roux,T., Romm,N. Uys, T.1986. Sociology.Pretoria : Unisa. qtiSgzkEX Visit coursework de in de fo de for de more hypothesis de Do de not de redistribute qtiSgzkEX 9. Marshall, G.1994. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. Great Britain :Oxford University Press. 10. Pratt, V. 1978. The Philosophy of the Social Sciences. New York: Methuen Co. 11. Shand, .J.1993.The philosophy and Philosophers. Harmondsworth :Penguin Books. 12. Stumpf, S.E.1983. Philosophy :History and Problems. New York. McGraw Hill, Inc. 13. Philosophy of Science, 2001.Philosophical Schools. http://mrrc.bio.uci.edu/se10/schools.html. 14. Catholic Encyclopedia.2002. Empiricism. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05407a.htm.

Response To: Hiroshma By Berger :: essays research papers

In his essay "Hiroshima," John Berger examines the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. As he flips through the pages of the book Unforgettable Fire, he begins to relay his own views on the dropping of the A-bomb. Berger suggests his belief that it was an act of terrorism on the Japanese. While viewing the drawings, paintings, and descriptions the victimes of the A-bomb created, Berger starts forming his opinion on the tragedy. He eventually concludes that Japan was a victim of terrorism. However, unlike most terrorists who are from small countries, Japan's attacker was the most powerful nation in the world. America, the country that symbolizes peace and freedom, led the massacre on thousands of Japanese. Just as Berger states, when American children are taught about Hiroshima, the fact that it was unnecessary is ommitted. Never had I been urged to stop and comtemplate the question of why it happened. Likewise, never was this topic addressed in my history courses. In fact, I cannot remember one occassion when I was told of the innocent people who became victims of the attack. I, just as all American children, was taught that it was an important event in history. However,it was never once explained to me that it was important because it marked the largest terrorist act in history. As Berger composes his essay, he argues against things that everyone is told are wrong. However, he is one of the few who actually make the connection between the Hiroshima attack and terrorism. His argument is utterly flawless. He defines terrorism and then points out every aspect of this definition in the Hiroshima bombing. From the lack of necessity to the loss of thousands of innocent lives, the Hiroshima incident represents the model terrorist attack.

Brief History of the National Rifle Association :: NRA Guns Historical Militia Essays

Brief History of the National Rifle Association   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The National Rifle Association in its simplest form is the largest gun club in the world. The organization was founded in 1871 by former Union Army officers to encourage sport shooting in order to have a fine tuned militia in case of emergency. The Union officers believed that a well regulated militia was integral for the security of a free state. It is an organization that opposes gun control, it believes in the individual defense of the uses of firearms, and it is interested in all aspects of shooting sports.1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Today, the organization stands with approximately 3.4 million members. Within the NRA, there are four major organs. The Institute for Legislative Action (is the lobbying arm), the political Victory Fund (which is a political action committee), the Civil Rights Legal Defense Fund (deals with scholarly research and legal developments), and the Grass Roots Division (which specializes in raising support through grass roots methods). As a membership organization, the NRA's directions is set by voting members. The direction of the policies are carried out by a 75 member board that is geographically distributed. The Board of Directors are elected by secret ballot.2 Brady Act   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Brady Act was approved by Congress in November of 1993 and was then signed into law by President Clinton later in the month. The act was originally named for anti gun lobbyist Sarah Brady, and not for former press secretary Jim Brady. It was through Jim Brady's support and the media coverage that linked his name to the act. The act requires that there be a waiting period of five state government business days at the time an individual applies to purchase a handgun from a federal firearm license. During the five day wait, the local sheriff or police chief must "make a reasonable effort" to see if the purchaser is prohibited from owning a handgun. The police official may approve the sale before the five day period only if the record check has been completed or if he believes the purchaser needs a handgun immediately to protect himself or his family.3   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Presently, the Clinton administration isn't complying with the Brady Act. The act requires that within 60 months of enactment, the Attorney General must establish a national instant criminal background check system that allows federal firearms licensees to have access through some type of electronic method. The reason for the delay lies with the fact that U.S. Circuit Courts have split on whether the Brady Act violates the 10th amendment of the Constitution by allowing law enforcement agencies to conduct criminal records checks in

Morphology of the Heart Essay

The heart is a muscular organ found in all animals with a circulatory system. The heart pumps blood throughout the blood vessels by contractions. Cardiac means â€Å"related to the heart†, and comes from the Greek. The vertebrate heart is made up of cardiac muscle, it’s an involuntary striated muscle tissue found only in this organ, and connective tissue. The male’s heart weighs 9-11 ounces, and the female’s heart weighs about 11-12 ounces. A person’s blood pressure has major effects on their heart; high blood pressure is a major risk factor for a heart attack. If the heart can’t get enough oxygen, you will get chest pains which is called angina, and when your blood flow is blocked, it will result in a heart attack. Not only do heart attacks occur with high blood pressure, so does congestive heart failure. Congestive heart failure can be deadly and is a result of the heart being unable to pump enough blood for what your body needs. Homeostasis is your body’s ability to maintain an internal environment that is constant, no matter what is happening outside of it. The body has a lot of responsibility, like blood pressure, temperature, and things like glucose levels even. So, when the body’s blood pressure is high, or even low, it means that your body’s homeostasis or balanced state has become unbalanced. References: Homeostatic Regulation of Blood Pressure , 2012. eHow.com.http://www.ehow.com/about_5565094_homeostatic-regulation-blood-pressure.html#ixzz2FS7wlBON SteadyHealth.2004 – 2011 Wesite: http://terms.steadyhealth.com/Heart_morphology NHLBI. 2012.Website:http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/hbp/hbp/effect/heart.htm